With a history of some three thousand years,
Zoroastrianism is one of the most ancient
living religions. It is the most important
and best-known religion of ancient, or pre-Islamic,
Iran. It takes its name from that of its
founder, Zarathushtra (Zoroaster), who probably
lived around the beginning of the first millennium
BCE. It was, therefore, the religion of Iran
under the rule of the Iranian-speaking Aryan
populations, members of the Aryan or Indo-Iranian
group of the more extended Indo-European
family. Another name for Zoroastrianism,
Mazdaism, is derived from the name of the
religion's supreme god, Mazda ("wise"),
or Ahura Mazda ("wise lord").
The roots of Zoroastrianism can be located
in an eastern Iranian, tribal, and basically
pastoral society. The religion originated
around 1000 BCE and developed further under
the first Persian empire, but its clear conservatism
and strong traditionalism appear to be manifestations
of a cultural attitude that emerged during
the Sasanid period (third to seventh century
CE). The evolution and profound transformations
of Zoroastrianism are the consequences of
its history.
Origins. Zoroastrianism originated in the eastern
and south-central regions of the Iranian
world, between the great mountain ranges
of the Hindu Kush and Seistan, an area that
today is divided between Iran and Afghanistan.
According to one tradition, Zarathushtra
came from Azerbaijan, but this theory has
no historical foundation; apparently, during
the Parthian or Sasanid period, the clergy
of a local sanctuary claimed that the cult
originated in their region in an attempt
to confer a higher stature and authority
upon their own traditions. Moreover, the
hypothesis that Zarathushtra lived on the
outskirts of northeastern Iran. in part of
the province of Chorasmia, at the eve of
the establishment of the empire of Cyrus
II. is based on arguments that do not stand
up to critical analysis. Current research
on the religion's origin is based on geographical
information contained in the Avesta, as well
as on an evaluation of archaeological findings
and on a reinterpretation of the few available
sources.
The geographical boundaries of the Avesta
define the eastern Iranian world and include
all of modern Afghanistan as well as some
neighboring regions. The text does not mention
any regions. areas, or places in western
Iran. Media. or Persia. We also notice a
complete absence of information about both
Medes and Persians.
Distinctive Characteristics. The primary innovation of Zoroastrianism,
which sets it apart from the religions of
other Indo-European peoples in the Near East
and Central Asia, is its emphasis on monotheism.
Its outstanding feature, in the religious
context of the entire Indo-Mediterranean
world. resides in its radical dualism. Both
aspects are fundamental to Zarathushtra's
philosophical and religious doctrine.
Zarathushtra's high esteem for speculation
caused the Greeks to view him more as a wise
man than as the founder of a religion; they
saw the author of the Gathas as one of the
highest and most significant representatives
of "alien wisdom." Nor is it pure
coincidence that he was mainly known for
his dualistic teachings, as were his most
direct disciples, the Magi.
Monothesism and Dualism. Monotheism and dualism are closely linked
in the Gathas. They are not in conflict with
each other, for monotheism is in opposition
to polytheism, not to dualism (Pettazzoni,
1920). In fact, dualism, far from being a
"protest against monotheism", is
a necessary and logical consequence thereof;
its purpose is to explain the origins of
evil. The basis of dualism is essentially
ethical: the nature of the two opposing Zoroastrian
spirits, Spenta Mainyu ("beneficent
spirit") and Angra Mainyu ("hostile
spirit"), who are twin children of Ahura
Mazda, results from the choice they made
between "truth," asha, and the
"lie," druj, between good thoughts,
good words, and good deeds and evil thoughts,
evil words, and evil deeds. The choices made
by the two spirits (Yasna 30.5) lie at the
root of Zoroastrian dualism, and they act
as a prototype (Yasna 30.2, 49.3) of the
choices that face each man as he decides
whether to follow the path of truth or that
of untruth (Gershevitch, 1964). The good
or evil nature of the two spirits derives
from his own moral choice and is not, as
suggested by some scholars, innate, ontologically
given, or predetermined .
Ahura Mazda. The concept of Ahura Mazda as the creator
of heaven and earth, day and night, and light
and darkness (Yasna 44.3-5), as well as the
ethical context in which Zarathushtra conceived
his answer to the problem of evil, demonstrates
that the prophet was an original thinker,
a powerful religious figure who introduced
radical changes to the spiritual and cultural
world in which he was reared. He responded
to a deeply formalistic and ritualistic religion
by strongly and insistently praising human
worth and dignity. Early Zoroastrianism set
itself apart from the sacrificial cult of
a society in which militaristic values were
still pervasive. It advocated an inward-seeking
religion and favored an intellectual cult
rooted in the Indo-Iranian priestly tradition-that
of " Aryan mysticism" (Kuiper,
1964)-which had high regard for thought and
knowledge.
Zoroastrian Message. The original Zoroastrian message, however,
was profoundly transformed by the first generations
of the prophet's disciples. Later, elaborations
by the clergy even went so far as to allow
various aspects of the old polytheistic and
ritualistic practices to reemerge, albeit
with some limitations. Contact with other
religions, as well as historical developments
in Iran, also contributed to the evolution
of the religion. Ultimately Zoroastrianism,
which had arisen in reaction to an archaic
and formalistic religion, absorbed many of
the concepts and values that belonged to
the very world it had rebelled against, in
particular those elements not linked with
the ideas, practices, and ethics of the warrior
aristocracy. The result was a complex religious
tradition that has persisted throughout thousands
of years of Iranian history. Zoroastrianism
is based on an ethical approach and tends
toward abstraction. Halfway between a prophetic
and monotheistic type of religion, it incorporates
elements and beliefs that also belonged to
the great monotheistic religions that arose
to the west of the Iranian world- at the
same time it is a ritualistic, somewhat polytheistic
religion, rich in mythology. Nonetheless
it formed a highly original model that exercised
a great and deep influence well beyond the
Iranian world, both to the east and to the
west.
Theology , Pantheon, and Pandemonium. In Zarathushtra's conception, a dualistic
vision is almost a natural consequence of
monotheism, for dualism explains the evil
that resides in the world and afflicts it.
The problem of evil and suffering is basic
to Zoroastrian thought, and the urgent human
necessity of providing an answer to the problem
is reconciled with an abiding faith in the
dignity and freedom of humanity by means
of belief in the so-called myth of choice.
Within the dualistic vision of Zoroastrianism,
it is not only Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu
who are confronted by moral choices. The
daivas ("gods," a term that in
later Zoroastrianism became a generic reference
for the demonic powers), who are the progeny
of bad thought, untruth, and pride, became
evil because they made the wrong choice.
As a result, the daivas serve as the inspiration
of humanity, which is poised in the center
of the struggle between the two opposite
poles of truth and untruth, of good and evil,
of life and nonlife.
Above and beyond the daivas and the two Mainyus
is the Wise Lord, Ahura Mazda, who was most
likely created by Zarathushtra. The name
itself has no parallel in India-apart from
the first half, ahura, "lord" (Old
Indian, asura)-and in this it differs from
the names of many other deities or divine
entities derived from the ancient Iranian
pantheon. Ahura Mazda's existence may have
owed something, at least in part, to the
Varuna of Vedic India or to an Indo-Iranian
ahura or asura, which we might be able to
reconstruct by using a comparative method.
Yet Ahura Mazda presents unique features
that can only be explained by Zarathushtra's
concept of divinity and by his particular
intuitions. Zarathushtra's creation of Ahura
Mazda reveals that the prophet was a great
religious reformer, a wise man in search
of knowledge and enlightenment, rather than
a follower of any traditional doctrine. Here
Zarathushtra addresses his god.
In the passage quoted above we find terms
such as Truth, Good (or Best) Thought, Devotion,
and Power . These, together with others,
such as Wholeness and Immortality (or Long
Life), as well as the Wise Lord or, rather,
his beneficent spirit, form a group of seven
"beneficent immortals," the Amesha
Spentas, who are of fundamental importance
for understanding Zarathushtra's thought.
They are mentioned again and again in the
Gathas, sometimes in reference to a divine
subject, that is, the Wise Lord, and sometimes
to a human subject, that is, Zarathushtra
or other men. The seven are Vohu Manah ("good
thought"), Asha Vahishta ("best
truth"), Khshathra Vairya ("desirable
dominion"), Spenta Armaiti ("beneficent
devotion"), Haurvatat ("wholeness"),
and Ameretat ("immortality"). These
are entities as well as abstract concepts,
aspects, or virtues of the Wise Lord and
of the man who follows truth, or asha (Vedic,
rta). Theological speculation after the Gathas
has arranged them by codifying their order
and their attributes and is also probably
responsible for devising for them a system
of interrelations, based on an analysis of
the physical world. Thus Vohu Manah is traditionally
linked with cattle, Asha with fire, Khshathra
with metals, and Arrnaiti with earth. According
to Georges Dumezil's theory of the Indo-European
tripartite ideology, subscribed to by a number
of scholars of Iranian studies (e.g., Jacques
Duchesne-Guillemin and Geo Widengren), an
analysis of the Amesha Spenta systern reveals
what appears to be the typical framework
of functional tripartition. In other words,
Asha and Vohu Manah would appear to be Zoroastrian
substitutes for the two main Aryan deities,
Varuna and Mitra, representing the first
function, that of magical and juridical sovereignty.
Khshathra Vairya corresponds to Indra, representing
the warrior function; Haurvatat and Ameretat,
of the Nasatya couple, together with Armaiti,
a polyvalent entity, conform to the function
of fertility and fruitfulness.
It is not easy to understand the Zoroastrian
concept of the beneficent immortals who form
the retinue of the Wise Lord. In order to
comprehend its meaning, one should probably
keep in mind the double structure of opposites-good
and evil, spirit and matter-that characterizes
the Amesha Spentas, their interrelations,
and their reciprocal conditioning. Their
dual character- they are both divine and
human-can perhaps be explained by a mystical
experience. In this experience, Zarathushtra,
or the man "who possesses asha"
(ashavan), assumes divine virtues and powers
while in a state of ecstasy called maga and,
in so doing, joins the beneficent immortals
and becomes identified, in a way, with the
beneficent spirit who made the right choice.
We should, of course, view the Zoroastrian
language, however greatly innovative, in
the context of the priestly tradition clearly
identified as Aryan mysticism. The Gathas
shows us an inner religiosity, one that allowed
ample space for individual experience.
The Yashts section of the Avesta is the principal
and most clear evidence available to us regarding
the process of zoroastrianization of ancient
deities within a new cultural context, dominated
by the figure of the supreme god, Ahura Mazda.
The Yashts are hymns dedicated to the various
beings worthy of worship: Ahura Mazda himself,
the Amesha Spentas as a group, Asha Vahishta,
Ameretat, and Aredvi Sura Anahita, a goddess
also known to us through the Achaemenid inscriptions,
who corresponded to the Indian Sarasvati;
Hvare Khshaeta (the "brightly shining"
sun); Mah ("the moon"); Tishtrya,
the star Sirius, a rain god; Druvaspa ("possessing
sound horses"), a female yazata, closely
associated with Geush Urvan; Mithra, who
also appears in the Achaemenid inscriptions;
and Sraosha and Rashnu, who, together with
Mithra, judge the soul after death. Also
considered worthy of reverence are the fravashis,
or spirits of the soul, whose worship was
probably a surviving trace of an ancient
cult of the spirits of the dead and of a
concept of immortality typical of a warrior
society; Verethraghna ("smiting of resistance"),
the yazata of victory; Vayu ("wind"),
the yazata of the wind; Daena., the etymology
of which is uncertain, probably meaning "image,"
as well as "conscience," "self,"
and "religion"; Ashi ("reward,
recompense"), a female yazata of abundance
and fertility; Arshtat, a female yazata personifying
justice, the companion of Mithra; Khvarenah
("splendor"), a yazata personifying
an igneous and luminous energy, seen as a
vital force, and the bearer of success and
fortune, traditionally linked with royalty;
Haoma, personifying the object of the sacrifice
and worshiped as the "priest of the
sacrifice," whose hymn is preserved
in the Yasna section (9.10, 9.11); and, finally,
the star Vanant (Vega).
Of all these entities, Anahita and Mithra
are certainly the most important, forming
a triad when joined with Ahura Mazda. The
two also appear in the Achaemenid.
Cosmogony and Cosmology. Zoroastrian cosmogony contemplates three
basic moments: the creation of the world,
the revelation of the Mazdean "good
religion," and the final transfiguration.
Although most ancient texts do not present
the cosmogonic doctrine systematically, it
can be reconstructed with the aid of the
Pahlavi religious literature, in which the
three cosmogonic moments are called, respectively,
Bundahishn ("creation"); Gumezishn
(the mingling of the two opposing spirits);
and Wizarishn (their final separation). Everything
that exists does so in a double state, the
mental, or spiritual (Pahl., menog), and
the physical, or material (Pahl., getig).
The spiritual state also possesses an embryonic,
seminal value in relation to the material
one, which is almost like its fruit. According
to the Pahlavi literature, only the evil
spirit is incapable of transforming its creation
from the spiritual to the physical state
because it is innately sterile and destructive.
Material existence is therefore not seen
as negative in itself; rather, in the state
of "mixture," it is contaminated
by the aggressive activity unleashed against
it by the evil spirit. In the Gathas, too
(Yasna 30.4), life and non-life, good and
evil, result from the meeting of the two
spirits.
The world was created in six consecutive
stages. First, the sky was made of stone
and rock crystal, then water, earth, vegetation,
animal life, and humanity were formed. The
earth is surrounded by a great mountain range,
Hara Berezaiti ("high Hara"; Pahl.,
Harburz; Pers., Alburz), which is linked,
through subterranean roots, with Mount Hara,
located at the center of the earth. The first
and largest of the seven areas in which the
earth is divided is a region called Khvaniratha;
it is the only one inhabited by man. The
remaining six sections of the world (Pahl.,
keshwar) surround the Khvaniratha. From Mount
Hara descend waters that flow into the Vourukasha
("having many inlets") Sea, which
covers a third of the earth toward the south
and has at its own center a mountain made
of the same matter as the sky. Two great
rivers, Good Dfiityfi and Ranhfi, originate
in the Vourukasha Sea, and they mark the
eastern and western borders of the Khvaniratha
keshwar. Mount Harfi, also known as Hukairya
("of good activity"), is thus the
highest spot on earth, and from it the souls
of the dead depart on their heavenly voyage.
In the middle of the Vourukasha Sea is found
the Tree of All Seeds, as well as another
tree that is endowed with healing powers
and confers immortality. It is identified
as White Haoma, the "chief of plants."
Gav-aevo-data (Pahl., Gaw-i-ew-dad), or "uniquely
created bull," who was killed by the
evil spirit, and Gaya-maretan (Pahl., Gayomard),
or "mortal life," also killed by
Ahriman, were the prototypes, respectively,
of animals and men. From their seed there
originated all manner of good animals, as
well as the first human couple, Mashya and
Mashyanag.
The Indo-Iranian background of many of these
doctrines is evident. We are reminded, for
example, of Mount Meru or Sumeru in Indian
mythology and cosmography; of the seven dvipas,
which echo the seven keshwars; of the Jambu
Tree, to the south of Mount Meru; and of
Martanda ("mortal seed"), whose
myth contains some important analogies with
that of Gayomard.
The most original aspects of Zoroastrian
doctrine lie not so much in its cosmological
conclusions as in its history of the cosmos
and in its teachings concerning the two states
of menog and getig and the three stages of
Bundahishn, Gumezishn, and Wizarishn. In
particular, the notion of the two states,
which is also analogous in some of its aspects
to a number of Greek ideas (a fact that has
led to speculation concerning Greek influences,
either Platonic or Aristotelian, as the doctrine
is recorded systematically only in relatively
late texts), is nonetheless rooted in very
early Zoroastrianism. We find traces of it
even in the Gathas, which describe the two
states of being and of life as "spiritual"
and "with bones," that is, "endowed
with a body." In fact, the concept of
two worlds or two existences is deeply rooted
in all of Zoroastrian thought.
The teachings concerning the three stages
are also original in specific ways. The first
stage involves the separation of the two
spirits in the menog; the second stage is
that of their mingling, in the getig; the
third is that of their final separation,
in a state of perfect purity, abezagih, in
which man will live in his future body, tan
i pasen. According to these teachings, purity
and separation are one and the same, which
probably helps to explain the Zoroastrian
path to spiritual realization. The initiate,
the man who possesses asha (ashavan), can,
through the power that results from his state
of purity-which, in the Gathas, seems to
be what is called maga-obtain the benefits
of a spiritual existence, that is, enlightenment
and an intellectual vision. Through such
a process the initiate may come to resemble,
in life, the man who is blessed after death.
Eschatology and Soteriology. The history of the cosmos is a sacred one,
and it develops through three high points,
each with its own protagonist: Gayamaretan,
Zarathushtra, and Saoshyant (Pahl., Soshans),
or the future savior. These figures, however,
are only the main characters, representing
the beginning, the middle, and the end. A
host of other figures, heroes, and defenders
of the faith, organized in a complicated
sequence and in groups and dynasties that
are, for the most part, mythical, fills the
sacred history of Zoroastrianism.
The Avesta teaches that after death the soul
can reach Heaven, or the Infinite Lights
(Anagra Raocha), by following three steps,
a succession of increasingly bright and intense
lights: the Stars (good thoughts, humata),
the Moon (good words, hukhta), and the Sun
(good deeds, hvarshta). In order to undertake
the celestial journey, the soul must undergo
a dramatic trial: the crossing of the Chinvat
Bridge, the "bridge of separation."
Only those souls who have been deemed just
by Mithra, Sraosha, and Rashnu will be able
to cross the bridge; the souls of the evil
will fall into Hell, for the bridge will
narrow to the width of a razor's edge when
they attempt to cross it. Three days after
death and the painful separation of the soul
from the body, the just will meet their daena,
the image of their own self, who will be
disguised as a beautiful fifteen-year-old
girl. There is an intermediate area for those
who do not deserve either Heaven or Hell
because the total weight of their good thoughts,
good words, and good deeds is equal to that
of their bad thoughts, bad words, and bad
deeds. These souls remain in a sort of limbo
called Hamistagan ("region of the mixed"),
a dwelling place of shadows where there is
neither joy nor torment.
The idea of a future savior is, in any case,
an archaic one, appearing in one of the oldest
hymns (Yashts 19.86-96). According to later
tradition, the savior is born of a virgin
who was impregnated by the seed of Zarathushtra
while she was bathing in the waters where
it was deposited (the great Hamuni-i-Hilmand
Basin, in Iranian Seistan). One legend holds
that there will be three saviors: Ukhshyatereta
("he who makes truth grow"), Ukhshyatnemah
("he who makes reverence grow"),
and Astvatereta ("he who embodies truth").
All three saviors, each the son of Zarathushtra,
will appear at three different times, each
at the end of one of the last three millennia
in the history of the cosmos (there are twelve
millennia in total). According to the Bundahishn,
the twelve-thousand-year period is subdivided
into four segments, each lasting three thou-
sand years. The first period is that of the
creation made by Ohrmazd (the Pahlavi form
for Ahura Mazda) in the menog ("ideal")
stage; during this time, Ahriman (the Pahlavi
form for Angra Mainyu) starts his struggle
against the forces of good. The second period,
which resulted from an agreement between
the two opponents to establish a period of
nine thousand years in which to mingle, witnesses
Ohrmazd's transformation of his creation
from the menog stage to the getig. The third
period begins with Ahriman's attack against
the world created by Ohrmazd, after which
the latter creates the fravashi of the prophet.
The fourth begins with the revelation to
the prophet of the "good religion,"
an event that takes place in the year 9000
of the history of the world and continues
with the advent of the three saviors at the
end of each millennium.
Customs, Rituals, Festivals. Despite its original antiritualistic character,
Zoroastrianism soon became a religion in
which ceremony played a leading role. It
is not possible to know which religious rituals
were recommended by the prophet to his disciples
in addition to prayer. The importance of
prayer was always fundamental, and some forms,
particularly revered ones, have lasted through
the centuries, for example, a type of traditional
manthra (Skt., mantra) that is endowed with
magical powers. The main prayers are Ahuna
Vairya, Airyema Ishyo, Ashem Vohu, Yenhe
Hatam. Even in modern times, the day of a
pious Zoroastrian is divided into five prayer
periods. Most likely, alongside the recitation
of the manthra, Zarathushtra recommended
meditating before the only basic symbol of
the new religion-fire.
Although modified to fit the tenets of the
Zoroastrian message, the old ritualism reemerged
and asserted itself anew during the first
centuries of the new faith. The re- emergence
most likely took place before the advent
of the great Achaemenid empire. Animal sacrifice
became accepted again, although only in forms
that could be seen as compatible with the
new ethical values, and even the haoma cult
was reestablished. In fact, Haoma became
a yazata in the new Zoroastrian pantheon.
This reconstruction of the earliest history
of Zoroastrianism, the result of traditional
scholarship, must still be considered valid,
despite claims by some scholars (Marijan
Mole, Mary Boyce) that it is fundamentally
incorrect.
The strongest analogy with Vedic sacrifice
and its ideology is to be found in the cult
of haoma. Like the Indian soma, which is
also Soma, a divine being, the Iranian haoma
is an immortalizing potion, one that brings
various benefits, such as inspiration, victory
, fertility, and riches, to the person performing
the sacrifice. We do not know whether haoma
was originally a mushroom or a plant of some
kind, but Zoroastrians have traditionally
used a species of Ephedra in the sacrificial
ceremony. Using a mortar, they extract the
juice from the plant, then drink this liquid
while a complex set of rituals is performed.
Haoma was also given to the dying, functioning
as a kind of viaticum that would allow them
to obtain immortality and to be resurrected.
The haoma sacrifice is seen in some ways
as a precursor of the eschatological one,
in which the future savior is to prepare
the ambrosia with white haoma.
The complex Zoroastrian rituals involve many
of the most significant moments in the lives
of the faithful. Thus we find initiation
rites, Naojot (a term deriving from an older
one indicating a "new birth"),
in which a child, at age seven or ten, is
fitted with a shirt, sadre, and girded with
a cord called kusti. Zoroastrians also celebrate
marriage rituals, as well as purification
rituals (e.g., Padyab, ablution; Nahn, bath;
Bareshnum, the great purification for the
initiation of priests and corpse-bearers),
in which an important part is played by gomez,
consecrated urine, originally cow's urine,
following Indo-Iranian practices and ideas.
Funeral rites (for example, Zohr i atash,
in which animal fat is poured onto the fire,
obviously reminiscent of some ancient animal
sacrifice) take place in the dakhmas, the
"towers of silence," and are meant
to free the soul of the dead man from the
demon of corpses (Druj i Nasu) and to assist
it along its heavenly journey, which begins
four days after death. Confession of one's
sins is made during Patet, a ritual of penance.
Also important in the Zoroastrian liturgy
are the rituals surrounding the founding
of an ateshgah and the consecration of a
dakhma. These involve the entire community.
But Yasna ("sacrifice"; Skt., yajniah),
the sacrifice of haoma before a fire, performed
in a different room from that where the fire
is usually kept, is the main Zoroastrian
liturgy. The Yasna is preceded by a preparatory
rite, the Paragra, which consists of a number
of meticulous ritual operations and ends
with the preparation of the sacrificial liquor.
The ritual is performed by two priests, known
as the zot (Av., zaotar; Skt., hotr) and
the raspi. The former recites the Yasna-that
is, the seventy-two chapters included in
this section of the Avesta-and the latter
fuels the ceremonial fire. The entire ceremony
takes place in twelve stages, during which
the Yasna is recited in a rhythmical way.
The sacrifice is commissioned by the faithful
and is carried out for their intentions.
Fire is not only the main symbol of Zoroastrianism;
it is also the most venerable witness of
the Yasna. It is the object of the priest's
address and of the offering of the haoma.
In Iran, as in India, there are three ritual
fires: farrbay, the fire of priests; gushnasp,
the fire of warriors; and burzen mihr, the
fire of farmers. There are also five natural
fires, which reside, respectively, in front
of Ahura Mazda, in the bodies of men and
animals, in plants, in clouds, and in the
earth. Thus, fire is a vital element and
is present in all of nature. Two divine entities
are associated with it: Apam Napat ("grandson"
or "son of the water"), the ahura
"who created male human beings,"
and Nairyosanha (Pahl., Neryosang, .'of manly
utterance"), the yazata of prayer. Also
related to fire is the concept of khvarenah
(Pahl., khwarrah, farr), meaning .'splendor"
or "divine grace" and represented
as an igneous fluid and vital seed (Duchesne-Guillemin,
1962). This is a basic concept in the cosmogony,
in the eschatology , and in the psychology
of Zoroastrianism. Because of the symbolic
values they attribute to fire, Zoroastrians
have been erroneously considered fire worshipers,
especially by the Muslims.
Adapted from the Encyclopedia of Religion.
1987. Eliade, M., Ed. MacMillan Publishing
Co., NY.
