 |
|
|
 |
 |
 |
JUDAISM
Introduction
Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people,
with a history of well over 3,000 years.
The Bible makes no reference to Judaism,
which is first noted in a rabbinic text composed
centuries later; nor does it have a word
for "religion." What it does contain
are laws and customs, rules and regulations,
dealing with every facet of life. Nowhere
does the Bible or any subsequent Jewish literature
present a formal creed demanding acceptance.
At times efforts were made to formulate a
doctrine of Judaism, but a credal statement
never became the criterion of Jewishness.
From the earliest periods each generation
contributed to the development of Jewish
values and thought. To understand the ethical
values, religious ideas, and theological
and social elements of the Jewish faith,
it is necessary to begin with the Bible.
In the effort to structure the life of the
Jewish people on these religious and spiritual
values, the biblical text often was interpreted
to reflect the changing circumstances of
Jewish life. To this end, large bodies of
legal and nonlegal literature were created
as a guide to behavior. Nothing was considered
to be outside the domain of Jewish law. Occasional
differences could be found among Jews living
in various parts of the world, but for the
most part these were inconsequential.
This general uniformity continued well into
the l8th century when the emancipation of
Jews in western Europe led to their greater
involvement in social and political affairs.
By the early 19th century, Jews were attempting
to accommodate their social and religious
patterns to those of the society at large.
Reform Judaism introduced elements of change
from the traditional pattern that enabled
Jews to appear less distinguishable from
non-Jews, irrespective of the way they practiced
Judaism at home. Tensions arose between those
who adhered to the tradition and those who
sought new expression for their religious
values. Conservative Judaism, which emerged
toward the end of the 19th century, acknowledged
the evolutionary development of the Jewish
tradition and the historical continuity of
the Jewish people, but did not depart as
much a Reform from traditional Judaism. It
placed greater reliance on the legal, or
halakhic, process for determining contemporary
Jewish behavior.
Judaism is closely related to Christianity
and Islam, both of which drew heavily on
its religious and ethical teachings. Christianity
incorporated the Jewish Bible in its own
scripture calling it the Old Testament, and
Islam incorporated the great figures of biblical
times into the religious past of Muslims.
The holy places of the Jewish past became
holy to Islam as well. A multitude of forces
influence the lives of Jews today. Traditional
or Orthodox Judaism while recognizing changes
in Jewish life, is the least affected by
them. Conservative and R( form Judaism reflect
more radically the social and intellectual
currents to which Jews are ex posed. It is
easier to discern the roots of Judaism than
to catalogue its contemporary manifestations.
The historic faith of a history-conscious
folk, it manifests a vitality that will forge
new vessels for old content and fresh content
for old and hallowed vessels.
Return to Menu
Fundamental Beliefs. Although Judaism has no formal creed, certain
basic elements can be discerned among the
Jews of every age. Foremost among these is
the belief in God as affirmed in Deuteronomy
(6:4 "Hear O Israel the Lord is our
God, the Lord is one." This statement,
known as the Shema from the first word in
Hebrew, epitomizes the faith of the Jews.
It is included in their daily prayer and
is the last thought to be uttered at the
time of death. The Bible offers no theological
arguments for the existence of God. His presence
and gracious goodness are manifest in all
creation, at all times and in all places.
For the Jewish people, however, God chose
one particular time and place in which to
revel his special relationship with them.
According t the scriptural account, God,
speaking through Moses at Sinai, instructed
the Children of Israel in every detail of
the Law. By accepting the Mosaic Law the
people entered into a Covenant with God that
assured them his everlasting care so long
as they would abide by his precepts and statutes.
They became God's "peculiar treasure,"
a people chosen among all the nations to
bear witness to him. Through all of Jewish
history "chosenness" was understood
as moral responsibility. Adversity was assumed
to have resulted from dereliction of duty.
Even the destruction of Jerusalem and the
exile of the Jewish people attested to the
justice of God.
In the 19th century the concept of the Chosen
People was translated by Reform Judaism into
the "Mission of Israel." The scattering
of the Jewish people was viewed not as punishment
for sins but as a reflection of God's desire
to have them bear universal witness to him
so that ultimately all humankind might be
brought to worship one God. Later, in Reconstructionist
Judaism, the concept of the Chosen People
was considered inappropriate to modern universalist
thought and was removed from the liturgy.
In traditional Judaism the concept of "chosenness"
is reflected in the blessing over the wine
that welcomes every Sabbath and festival
and in the blessing recited by those called
to the reading of the Law at Sabbath and
festival services.
The Revelation at Sinai, recorded in the
Five Books of Moses (Pentateuch) became the
basis of all Jewish law. The Law that was
written led to interpretation and development
known as the Oral Law, the substance of all
future Jewish jurisprudence. To this day
the Halakhah, or Jewish legal system, covers
all aspects of religious and secular behavior.
Orthodox (traditionalist) Jews give utmost
importance to Halakhah, whereas Reform Jews
consider it more a guide than a mandate.
While the range of Jewish law is extensive,
one characteristic emerges: the sanctification
of life through ethical and moral behavior.
The Jews were commanded to love their neighbors
as themselves. Failure to obey the Law in
all its forms was a trespass against God
and therefore a sin. In Judaism, the way
to recover from the consequences of error
is through repentance. So highly regarded
is repentance that the true penitent stands
where not even the fully righteous can stand.
Because of its importance in the shaping
of human behavior, repentance has been referred
to as the "Jewish doctrine of salvation."
Differing from repentance, though related
to it, is the concept of atonement, of performing
a specific act that helps a person become
"at one" with God. In ancient times,
a day was set aside for atonement in which
the priest offered sacrifices in the Temple
in Jerusalem on behalf of himself, his family,
and the whole household of Israel. That Day
of Atonement (Yom Kippur) is observed to
this day. With the destruction of the Temple,
prayer took the place of a sacrifice and
became the instrument of atonement.
By the post-biblical period, certainly by
the time of the rise of Christianity, the
idea of a "World to Come" had emerged,
This was understood to be a place where the
righteous would be rewarded in heaven for
the good deeds they performed on earth. Judaism,
however, has remained a religion of this
world, the purpose of which is to create
God's kingdom here on earth.
This attitude toward the future is shaped
in part by the belief that God's kingdom
will be inaugurated on earth with the arrival
of his Messiah, or "Anointed One."
A descendant of King David, the Messiah will
reestablish the Davidic line, which will
rule in Jerusalem and will rebuild the destroyed
sanctuary. The age of the Messiah will be
a time of universal fellowship in which all
nations will acknowledge the sovereignty
of God, and the righteous of past generations
will experience a resurrection. This messianic
concept is different from the Christian concept
derived from it in that its fulfillment is
to be on earth and not in heaven.
For centuries the belief in the coming of
a Messiah sustained Jewish hopes under difficult
circumstances. From time to time persons
arose who claimed or were thought to be the
anointed of God called to usher in a new
era of human existence, only to leave the
Jewish masses with hopes betrayed. For Orthodox
Jews a messianic age will come through divine
intervention in human affairs. For non-Orthodox
Jews an age of fellowship and understanding,
of righteousness and truth, will be achieved
through the cooperative effort of all humankind.
Branches of Judaism Over the centuries differences
among Jews resulted in the development of
special communities or parties responding
to particular historic events or formed for
the purpose of expressing their concepts
of Jewish peoplehood or the meaning of elements
within the Jewish faith. Some are little
known, while others have left a substantial
imprint.
Return to Menu
Hasidism. In 18th-century Poland and Ukraine a movement
of mystic revival called Hasidism arose.
The movement spread to Romania and Hungary
and from there to most of eastern Europe.
The founder was Yisra'el ben Eli'ezer, known
as the Ba'al Shem Tov ("Master of the
Good Name"). Contributing to the rise
of Hasidism were the poverty of Polish Jews,
the Cossack uprisings, and the spiritual
vacuum left by the failed messianic pretender
Shabbatai Tsevi. The masses felt a sense
of rejection by the intellectual aristocracy
that dominated Jewish life.
The Ba'al Shem Tov was a "healer,"
and he taught ecstatic prayer and the need
for joy, enthusiasm, and communion with God
in all religious expression. The movement
evoked considerable opposition among communal
authorities and be- came suspect because
of the apparently pantheistic idea that God
filled every place. The opponents of Hasidism,
led by Eliyyahu ben Shelomoh Zalman of Vilna,
were called Mitnaggedim ("opponents").
They regarded the emphasis of Hasidism as
inappropriate and disapproved of their singing,
dancing, feasting, and gaiety.
Hasidism did not question the Halakhah, but
stressed "inwardness" and the esoteric
meaning of fhe Law. It gave the Jewish masses
a sense of religious dignity, but its emphasis
on inwardness led opponents to conclude that
Jewish observance was being undermined.
The Hasidim and the Mitnaggedim closed ranks
before the threat of the Jewish Enlightenment,
or Haskalah, in the late 18th century. Hasidism
remained strictly observant but used the
Sephardic prayerbook, while other eastern
European Jews followed the Ashkenazic liturgy.
The The Hasidim turned for authority to the
tsaddiq (holy man) who served as intermediary
between people and God. At times the institution
of the tsaddiq was subject to abuse and became
the object of attack by the Mitnaggedim.
Great centers of Hasidism were wiped out
by the Nazis, but some groups have established
themselves in the United States and Israel,
notably the Lubavitch, Satmar, and Bobov.
Return to Menu
Orthodox Judaism. The term Orthodox is a modern designation
for traditional Judaism borrowed from Christian
usage and first used disparagingly by Reform
Jews to describe rigid traditionalism. Contemporary
Orthodox Jews are united in a belief in the
Revelation at Sinai as described in the Torah,
and in the acceptance of both the Written
and Oral Law as divine. They accept the authority
of rabbis expert in the Talmud, in the Shulban
'arukh (a compendium of law written by Joseph
Caro [Yosef Karo] in the 16th century), and
in rabbinic responses to questions (Responsa).
Despite general unity in basic religious
tenets, some differences can be found in
belief and ceremony among Orthodox groups
such as the Hasidim, the Mitnaggedim, the
Sephardim, and the Ashkenazim. Modem Orthodoxy
shares the devotion of other Orthodox groups
to the Torah but has been more open to other
cultural influences, generally adopting the
vernacular of the surrounding community in
preference to Yiddish and promoting Jewish
universities and day schools.
Return to Menu
Reform Judaism. The Enlightenment brought t le Jewish people
into modem times and presented challenges
and the need for change. This led many to
a rejection of Halakhah and rabbinic authority
and to a desire for more aesthetically pleasing
forms of worship. In 1818 a group of Jews
in Hamburg, Germany, built a synagogue, which
they called a temple. They used the vernacular
(German) in prayer, shortened the service,
and modernized some concepts and ideas. Instrumental
music accompanied the worship, and a sermon
was preached in German. This was the beginning
of Reform Judaism, and it evoked strong opposition
from traditionalist Jews, who requested the
secular authorities to intervene.
Reform Judaism introduced confirmation for
boys and girls in place of the traditional
Bar Mitzvah, gave up belief in a personal
Messiah, and insisted that the lands of Jewish
residence, not the land of Israel, were home.
Reform eliminated head covering, dietary
restrictions, and other laws considered out
of date. It emphasized ethical elements over
ritual. Reform Judaism experienced modest
growth in Germany, France, and England, but
prospered in the United States.
Return to Menu
Conservative Judaism. The Conservative movement arose in the United
States in the late 19th- early 20th century
and attained some standing in Europe and
Israel. It was inspired by the positive-historical
school of Judaism, the main spokes man of
which was Zacharias Frankel (1801-1875).
Frankel opposed the rising Reform movement
and affirmed the importance of Jewish nationhood,
the land of Israel, and the Hebrew language.
Major figures in the movement's development
in the United States were Solomon Schechter,
the head of the Jewish Theological Seminary
in New York, and the scholar Louis Ginsberg.
Conservative Judaism propounded a cultural
Zionism as developed by the philosopher Ahad
ha-'Am. It retained the historical method
of understanding Judaism but developed a
more observant attitude to the mitsvot, or
commandments. It accepted modern scholarship
and acknowledged change. Conservative groups,
in common with other movements within Judaism,
experience tensions in the areas of theology
and religious practice and the place of women
in the rabbinate. The main institutions of
Conservatism are the Jewish Theological Seminary
for the training of rabbis and other religious
leaders, the Rabbinical Assembly, and a congregational
body known as the United Synagogue.
Return to Menu
Reconstructionist Judaism. Reconstructionism was founded by Rabbi Mordecai
M. Kaplan. In his book Judaism as a Civilization
(1934}, Kaplan sought to apply the conclusions
of modern naturalism to the Jewish religion.
An adherent of Conservative Judaism for most
of his life, Kaplan did not set out to found
a separate movement. Nevertheless, the movement
has its own prayer books and a Fellowship
of Reconstructionist Congregations.
The Reconstructionists regard Judaism as
a "religious civilization" evolving
in response to changes in the world. They
view Israel as a spiritual center and the
Diaspora as important for Jewish development.
God is the power that helps human beings
to realize their potential. The liturgy is
similar to that of Conservative Judaism,
but it incorporates other texts and eliminates
references to the "Chosen People."
Return to Menu
Tensions in Modern Judaism. The Jewish religious world is in a state
of continuing tension and development. Jews
everywhere are forced to confront intellectual
change and the consequences; of interaction
with non-Jews, which has led to an increase
in mixed marriages. In Israel, Orthodoxy
is well entrenched, enjoying government support
despite a mainly secular Jewish population.
The Law of Return, granting immediate Israeli
citizenship to any Jew settling in Israel,
has called for a definition of who is a Jew.
The traditional concept designating as Jewish
only one who is born of a Jewish mother is
seriously questioned in practice and theory
by Reform Jews in the United States. The
application of the Law of Return to the converts
of non-Orthodox rabbis is constantly under
attack by Israeli Orthodoxy. Reform Judaism
has resolved the question of the equality
of women by ordaining women rabbis: The Conservative
movement likewise ordains women rabbis but
remains divided on this and other questions.
Return to Menu
Sacred Writings and Codes. Foremost among the sacred writings of Judaaism
is the Bible, called in Hebrew the Tanach,
an acronym of the three major divisions of
the Hebrew Bible. The Torah comprises the
Five Books of Moses. Neviim (the Prophets)
contains the books of Joshua, Judges, I and
II Samuel, and I and II Kings, known as the
Early Prophets, as well as Isaiah, Jeremiah,
and Ezekiel and the 12 Minor Prophets, known
as the Later Prophets. All the remaining
books of the Bible form the Ketuvim, with
the last two being the books of Chronicles.
The Hebrew Bible is the same as the Christian
Old Testament, differing only in the positioning
of some of the books.
The Bible was composed over a period of more
than l,000 years, from the 12th to the 2d
century B.C. Not until the 2d century A.D.
was the canon closed, excluding the books
that became the Apocrypha.
The Five Books of Moses became the main source
for Jewish legislation covering every aspect
of social and religious behavior. Although
the text of the Bible could not be altered,
it could be studied to determine what new
legislation could be passed and still remain
within the spirit of Scripture itself. This
interpretation, called the Oral Law in distinction
from the Written Law carried with it the
sanctity of Scripture itself. According to
this view, Moses at Mount Sinai received
the Oral Law together with the Written Law,
the former to be determined through interpretation
of the latter.
The Oral Law brought biblical legislation
up to date and established appropriate rules
to be followed in situations not anticipated
in biblical times. The interpretation of
the biblical text was accomplished by the
Tannaim (teachers), who contributed to the
development and codification of the Oral
Law. By the 2d century the Oral Law had been
divided into six major divisions covering
the entire range of Jewish law. This work,
written in Hebrew, was called the Mishnah.
After the Mishnah was completed, additional
judicial interpretation continued in both
Palestine and Babylonia to determine its
applicability to daily living. Under the
Amoraim (interpreters) a Gemara (completion),
written in Aramaic, was produced. The Mishnah
and the Gemara of Palestine were put into
their present form about the year 325 and
constitute the Jerusalem Tal- mud. The Mishnah
and the Gemara of Babylonia, edited in their
present form about the year 500, constitute
the Babylonian Talmud.
At the same time that Jewish jurisprudence
developed through the interpretation of the
bib- lical text another type of literature,
largely non-legal, expounded the biblical
text and was known as the Midrash. The Midrash
is a detailed elaboration of the text of
the Scripture. The best known of these interpretations
is the Midrash Rabbah to the Five Books of
Moses and the five Scrolls-Song of Songs,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther.
The legal literature continued to develop
through the centuries as inquiries were directed
to the academies in Babylonia regarding the
application of Jewish law in all the many
places in which Jews resided. These questions
and answers, numbering many hundreds of thousands,
Constitute the Responsa literature, a valuable
storehouse not only for Jewish legal history
but also for the social, economic, and political
conditions wherever Jews lived.
In the 12th century, Moses Maimonides wrote
a codification of Jewish law called the Mishneh
Torah, a landmark of Jewish jurisprudence.
In the 16th century, Joseph Caro, using a
different structure, produced the Shulhan
Arukh (Prepared Table), which, with the addenda
of Moses Isserles, became the standard text
for traditional Judaism. In rabbinic tradition
the Law consists of 613 mitzvot (precepts
or commandments), 248 positive and 365 negative.
While the number 613 is agreed upon, differences
of opinion have arisen concerning some of
the laws counted among them.
The most important book of Jewish mysticism
s the Zohar (Splendor). It is a work of varied
authorship, the largest part of which, according
to most scholars, was written by Moses de
Leon, a Castilian Cabalist who died in 1305.
The Zohar was long attributed to Rabbi Simeon
Ben Johai of the 2d century A. D. and is
still so regarded by some.
The word Cabala, the general term for Jewish
mysticism, means that which has been received
and designates the hidden or inner meaning
of the biblical text to be obtained only
through the most careful study.
Return to Menu
Worship. One of the constants of Judaism since earliest
times has been the worship of God through
prayer and sacrifice. Abraham, the first
Hebrew, prayed to God and offered sacrifices
at improvised altars.
Return to Menu
Synagogue. Sometime thereafter, probably during the
Babylonian exile, a new institution, later
called the synagogue, appeared that became
a place of study, of prayer, and of public
assembly. It continued in existence even
after the Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt.
The synagogue was preeminently the place
of worship for the masses and also the place
where they received instruction in the requirements
of the Law.
After the destruction of the Temple in 70
A. D., the synagogue became the central institution
of Judaism. The priesthood has disappeared
in Reform Judaism. In traditional Judaism
those who claim descent from the ancient
priesthood are granted minor privileges during
the reading of the Torah in the synagogue
and in the rite known as the Redemption of
the First-Born.
The synagogue has always been a democratic
institution in which any qualified layman
may lead the congregation in prayer or study.
The authority of the rabbi derives from his
learning and from his judgment in matters
of Jewish ritual. It does not depend on his
exclusive prerogative to perform certain
rites or ceremonies. Even where marriages
are concerned, it is the civil law, not Jewish
religious law, that requires the presence
of a rabbi. In Reform congregations the rabbi
is likely to conduct the service of worship
and preach the sermon, but this does not
preclude the right of lay people to do so.
Return to Menu
Rabbi. The rabbi earns his designation through
study and is ordained by other rabbis through
the "laying on of hands" (semichah)
on completion of the required course of study.
Private ordination is possible, but most
rabbis are ordained through the rabbinic
institutions in which they study.
Return to Menu
Cantor. When the knowledge necessary for leading
a worship service is accompanied by a fine
voice and a familiarity with the musical
tradition of the synagogue, such a person
is designated a cantor (chazan), who frequently
is assigned other responsibilities as well.
Some Reform and Conservative synagogues have
female cantors, but the Orthodox movement
has none.
Return to Menu
Prayer Service. Since the synagogue service is a liturgical
one, a prayerbook is used by the congregation
and the person leading the service. The prayerbook
containing the daily and Sabbath prayers
is called a siddur (meaning "arrangement"),
while the one used for a festival is called
a mahzor (or "cycle"). The traditional
service is entirely in Hebrew, although the
prayerbook may contain an English translation.
In Conservative and Reform synagogues varying
amounts of English are incorporated in the
service, reflecting the preferences of the
rabbi and the congregation. Reform and Conservative
services may be accompanied by a mixed choir
and organ or other instrumental music. An
Orthodox synagogue will not allow instrumental
music during services of worship, although
an organ may be used for a wedding ceremony.
If a choir is permitted, it is exclusively
male. Jews are obliged by tradition to worship
three times daily: morning, afternoon, and
evening, with special prayers recited on
the Sabbath and on festivals and special
calendar events.
On all Sabbaths and festivals the Torah scroll
is read. One of the weekly portions is assigned
to each Sabbath. For the festivals, a selection
appropriate to each is prescribed. The structure
of the service for Passover, Shavuot, and
Sukkot is similar to that for the Sabbath
but contains special prayers and selections
from the book of Psalms called the Hallel.
Prayer in the synagogue is a collective enterprise
whose purpose is to articulate and affirm
a faith in God, to declare his greatness,
justice, and compassion, and to affirm allegiance
to the values of the Jewish tradition.
Return to Menu
The Sabbath. The importance of the Sabbath to Judaism
and the Jewish people is reflected in the
statement, "More than Israel has kept
the Sabbath the Sabbath has kept Israel."
The Sabbath may have origins that predate
its development by the Jews, but they are
obscure. Whatever they may have been, the
Jewish Sabbath has been subjected to a continuing
creative process.
The Bible provides two reasons for setting
aside one day of the week for a special purpose
as stated in Genesis (2:1-3), God completed
his creation by the seventh day and made
it a day o holiness and blessing. This is
discerned in full version of the Decalogue
that appears in Exodus (20:11), while the
version in Deuteronomy (5:15) declares that
the Sabbath must be kept as a day of rest
for human and beast as a reminder that the
Children of lsrael were once slaves in the
land of Egypt. Unremitting toil of servants
and slave was not to be allowed. The importance
of the Sabbath is further highlighted by
its being called a "sign of the covenant"
between God and Israel (Exodus 31:16, 17).
Although all work is to cease on the Sabbath
rest is not its only purpose. The goal is
holiness and work is prohibited because it
would intrude, into the process of sanctification.
The 24-hour period is to be a time for creative
leisure, for prayer and study. From the biblical
prohibition of' all manner of work,"
the rabbis developed 3 broad categories of
labor that were prohibited on the Sabbath.
In time the restrictions were eased, so that
Sabbath laws may be abrogated for the preservation
of life. In contemporary Jewish life, Sabbath
observance varies considerably, reflecting
the differences between traditional and liberal
orientations.
Return to Menu
Friday Evening. Preparations for the Sabbath begin on Friday,
long before sunset, as the house is thoroughly
cleaned. Food is prepared to last through
sunset of the next day, for cooking and the
making of a fire are prohibited. Shortly
before sunset, Sabbath candles are kindled,
generally by the female members of the family,
while in the synagogue a service inaugurating
the Sabbath is held. Significant among the
prayers L'cha Dodi, a hymn of welcome to
the Sabbath, a beloved bride. The Sabbath
dinner meal begins with a kiddush (the sanctification
of the Sabbath over a cup of wine) and the
breaking of special loaf of bread called
a challah. It is customary to enliven the
dinner with Sabbath song (zemirot) and Grace
after meals.
Many Reform and Conservative congregations
have their service at a later hour, after
dinner, and include the lighting of the candles
and the chanting of the kiddush as part of
the service. A social hour, called Oneg Shabbat
(Delight of the Sabbath), often follows the
service.
Return to Menu
Saturday. The Sabbath morning service is longer than
the daily morning service, includes the reading
of an assigned portion from the scroll of
the Torah, following which a passage from
the Prophets is chanted or read. The traditional
service includes a section of additional
prayer (Musaf) that recall the sacrifices
offered in the Temple on the Sabbath. Following
the morning service, at home or in the synagogue,
a kiddush is recited to further sanctify
the day.
As in daily worship, there is an afternoon
service for the Sabbath, which includes the
reading of part of the Torah portion assigned
for the coming week. In order that three
meals be consumed on the Sabbath day, it
is customary in some synagogues to have a
third meal (seudah shlishit). The evening
service, conducted after darkness has fallen,
concludes with the service of Havdalah, or
"distinction," which notes the
difference between the sacred and the profane,
between the Sabbath and the ordinary days
of the week. The rest, prayer, and spiritual
rebirth are considered a foretaste of the
bliss of the messianic age.
Return to Menu
Ceremonies and Rites. Life-cycle events have always been important
in Judaism. They make possible the highlighting
of Jewish values and provide means for their
communication. It is significant that many
persons who have abandoned general Jewish
observance return to the tradition for guidance
at specific times in the life cycle. The
ceremonies and rites of Judaism reflect a
striving toward kedushah (sanctification),
which is the goal of Jewish religious living.
Return to Menu
Birth. The birth of a child is regarded as an unquestioned
blessing and a mark of God's favor. Especially
in biblical times, children and kinfolk were
the instruments for preserving the memory
of persons after death.
On the first Sabbath following the birth
of a girl, the father is called to the Torah
during the synagogue service. A prayer is
said on behalf of the mother's speedy recovery
from childbirth, and the daughter is given
her name. A son is named at the B'rit Milah
(Covenant of Circumcision) on the eighth
day after birth. At the father's request
an official, called a mohel, performs the
circumcision, and the child is brought into
the Covenant of Abraham. Then the child receives
his Hebrew name in a prayer for his well-being
and the hope that he will fulfill the aspirations
of his parents. The ancient rite of circumcision
apparently was practiced by other peoples
as well as the Hebrews. The Bible attributes
the importance of the rite to Abraham, who
had himself and his sons circumcised. Circumcision
was understood to be the mark of the Covenant
between God and a male Jew, who is known
as a Ben B'Brit (plural, B'nai B'rit), or
"son of the Covenant." If the son
is the firstborn child of his mother, traditional
Jews perform a ceremony of Pidyon Haben (Redemption
of the Son).
Return to Menu
Coming of Age. At the age of 13, a boy is assumed to be
responsible for his own behavior. In the
synagogue the young man is called to the
reading of the Torah. He chants the prophetic
portion (Haftarah) that follows the reading
of the scroll. Among traditional Jews, the
father expresses gratitude at being relieved
of the responsibility for his son's behavior.
The Bar Mitzvah ("son of the commandment")
as he is now called may thereafter be counted
in the minyan (a quorum of ten required for
congregational services) and may be called
to the Torah during synagogue worship. Reform
synagogues have a similar ceremony for girls
called a Bat Mitzvah. In some Conservative
synagogues that allow Bat Mitzvah, the ceremony
often is held on Friday evening.
Early Reform congregations discarded Bar
Mitzvah in favor of Confirmation at a later
age for both boys and girls. The Confirmation
service takes place on the festival of Shavuot,
the anniversary of the giving of the Torah
at Mount Sinai. Confirmation has not preempted
Bar and Bat Mitzvah; nor has the Confirmation
of a religious school class detracted from
the celebration.
Return to Menu
Marriage. The commandment to "be fruitful and
multiply" was the first one given to
Adarn and Eve. Accordingly, to marry and
fulfill this commandment has always been
understood to be the obligation of every
Jew. In eastern Europe an important role
was played by the marriage broker (shadchan),
who helped families to arrange the marriages
of their children. Each community also had
a committee to provide dowries for orphaned
or impecunious young women.
The marriage ceremony takes place under a
canopy (chupah), symbolizing the bridal chamber.
Its top is generally, but not necessarily,
an embroidered velvet cloth mounted on four
stationary posts or held aloft by four males.
The traditional marriage ceremony begins
with a blessing of betrothal, which at one
time might have taken place months or years
before the marriage itself but is now a part
of the wedding ceremony. It is followed by
the central and main element of the marriage
ceremony, called kiddushin, in which the
groom places a ring on the index finger of
the bride's right hand and recite the formula
"Behold, thou art consecrated unto me,
with this ring, according to the Law of Moses
and Israel." It is common among liberal
Jews to use two rings, allowing the bride
to recite her, own formula to the groom.
A marriage contract;" or ketubah, is
then read. Written in Aramaic, it lists the
responsibilities of the husband and provides
assurance for the support of the bride. It
is signed by the groom in the presence of
two witnesses. The formula usually is fixed,
but some; contracts specify details of the
financial arrangements between the families.
Among traditional Jews, the groom performs
a symbolic act of acquisition (kinyan) at
the signing of the contract.
Following the reading of the ketubah, seven
benedictions are chanted or read. The ceremony
concludes with the breaking of a glass or
other fragile object wrapped in a cloth,
followed by the expression of "Mazal
Tov" (Good Luck) by all those present.
The glass breaking memorializes the destruction
of Jerusalem, to be remembered "above
my chief joy" (Psalm 137). It also serves
to remind the bride and groom of the fragile
character of human happiness and the need
to guard it with care. Although a rabbi usually
conducts the marriage ceremony and a synagogue
official is required by state law, Jewish
law requires only one who is sufficiently
learned to perform the ceremony.
If a marriage must be dissolved, civil law
requires that it be done according to the
laws of the state of residence. Reform Jews
accept a civil divorce as binding and do
not regard the lack of a religious divorce
(get) as an impediment to remarriage. Traditional
Jews require that a get be drawn, signed
by the groom, and presented to the bride
as her release to enter into another marriage.
Return to Menu
Death. When the end of life draws near, a confession
(vidui) is recited by or for the dying person.
After death, and before burial, the members
of the immediate family observe a time of
mourning, called aninut, during which they
are absolved from observing the precepts
of the Torah and are not to be comforted
by others. The funeral is followed by seven
days of mourning (shivah) during which the
mourners remain at home, except for the Sabbath
when they may attend the synagogue for worship.
After the seven days, and until the 30th
day from the time of burial, the mourning
customs are eased and the bereaved begin
their return to normal life. During this
period, called sheloshim, and for ten months
thereafter, it is customary for the bereaved
to recite the kaddish, or mourner's prayer,
which concludes every congregational service
of worship.
Each year on the anniversary of a death,
a yahrzeit (anniversary) candle is lighted,
and the kaddish prayer is recited in the
synagogue. On Yom Kippur and on each of the
three pilgrimage festivals, a memorial service
(yizkor) is held.
Return to Menu
Conversion to Judaism. For persons who wish to embrace Judaism,
a ceremony of conversion (gerut) is conducted
by three rabbis who determine the adequacy
of the candidate's preparation. Among traditional
Jews, a visit to the ritual bath (mikveh)
is required for a woman, and the rite of
circumcision for a male. Reform Judaism officially
does not require either, although some rabbis
request this of proselytes they have instructed.
Upon conversion the proselyte is considered
Jewish in every respect.
Return to Menu
Dietary Laws. The Bible declares that certain animals,
fowl, and fish are acceptable as food but
that others are prohibited. To be acceptable,
an animal must both chew the cud and have
cloven hooves. For example, the camel chews
the cud but does not have a cloven hoof and
is forbidden, as is the swine, which has
a cloven hoof but does not chew the cud.
Fish must have both fins and scales. Fowl
that are allowed or forbidden are listed
by name. Winged animals that creep generally
are forbidden, with some exceptions. Worms,
mice, snails, and seafood are forbidden.
A further restriction is "Thou shalt
not boil a kid in the milk of its mother
."
The rabbis of the Mishnah and the Talmud
provide elaborate extensions of the biblical
injunctions. Even if an animal is not forbidden,
the slaughtering (shechitah) must be done
by an official (shochet) trained to kill
with a minimum of pain. Only the forequarters
of a properly slaughtered animal may be eaten
because forbidden sinews are difficult to
remove from the hindquarters. Since the consumption
of animal blood is forbidden (fish blood
is not), the flesh must be soaked and salted.
The restriction of not boiling a kid in the
milk of its mother led ultimately to the
prohibition against mixing meat and dairy
foods. In traditional Jewish homes, meat
and dairy not only are unmixed but are prepared
in separate utensils, served on separate
dishes, and eaten with separate flatware.
Certain foods (fish, fruits, and vegetables)
are considered neither meat nor dairy (pareve)
and may be eaten with one or the other provided
the utensils used to prepare them have not
been mixed. These regulations also apply
to Passover, when different utensils and
dishes must be used, free of any contact
with leaven.
In Jewish law, the word used to designate
the ritual fitness of a food or utensil is
kasher (the Ashkenazic pronunciation is kosher).
Foods that are not acceptable are called
terefah. Reform Judaism officially rejected
the dietary laws as "apt to obstruct
spiritual elevation," although many
Reform Jews keep some form of dietary restriction.
Conservative Judaism officially accepts all
of the dietary regulations, except for wine,
which is no longer restricted. Many Conservative
Jews are more lenient than the strict traditionalists,
who observe the dietary regulations as a
divine mandate. Conservative and Reform Jews
observe the dietary laws mainly for historical
and psychological reasons.
Adapted from Collier's Encyclopedia. 1995.
P. F. Collier, NY.
Return to Menu
Related Links
Judaism is, like Christianity, a large and
fairly diverse belief. Therfore, there's
a general FAQ link below and a large resource
provided by Netscape.com.
Jewish FAQ and Reading Lists
Large Resource from Netscape.com
Return to Top
Opposing Views
Christian Criticism of Judaism
God is a Killer -- An Essay
THE INTERNATIONAL JEW, THE WORLD'S FOREMOST
PROBLEM -- by Henry Ford, SR.
Origin of Christian and Jewish Conflict
Atheism
Humanism
Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to
Civilization? by Bertrand Russell
Why I am Atheist by Ram Samudrala
The Necesity of Atheism by Percy Blysshe Shelley
Christianity
Islam
Books
|
|